首页 -> 2006年第5期
运用语用推理 提高英语听力
作者:李俊兰
一、相关理论
1.语言的间接性
在日常交际中,只要对人们使用的语言稍加观察,就可以发现人们说话并不总是说什么就意味什么,话语的字面意义和说话的真正意图并不总是一致的,这种当语言的字面意义和语言的话语意义不一致时,语言就具有了间接性。
2.言语行为理论
语用学的核心理论是英国哲学家奥斯汀(J.L. Austin)创立的言语行为理论(speech act theory),它在语用研究中具有及其重要的意义。根据奥斯汀的言语行为理论,人们使用语言进行交际是为了做某事、完成一定的行为、实现其特定的交际目的。
3.语境
在语言交际中,实际上对话语的理解起作用的不是话语交际时具体的情景因素,而是构成听话人认知语境的一系列假设,这是因为话语理解涉及两类信息的结合和运算,即话语所含的刺激信号建立的新信息和在此之前已经被处理的或存在于听话人认知语境的旧信息。新信息和旧信息互相联系在一起就成了关联信息。旧信息是交际中理解话语的基础,新信息在旧信息的基础上经过推理而得以理解,关联信息则能加快交际时话语的理解速度。听话人根据关联原则、根据旧信息和新信息之间的联系和相互作用(关联信息),借助演绎推理而获得说话人的话语意图。这是正确理解话语的一个有效途径。
二、实例分析
例1M:I hear you are moving into a new apartment soon.
W:Yes.That is more expensive.My present neighbor plays the piano all night long.
Q:Why is the woman moving?
A)She can't put up with the noise.
B)She wants to save some money to buy a piano.
C)The present apartment is too expensive.
D) She has found a job in neighboring area.
从以上对话中可以看出, 这位女士显然违反了会话原则中的数量准则,即“不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。”男士听说女士很快要搬进新公寓住了,向女士问及此事。女士回答了yes,本来就已经可以了,而她又加了两句“That is more expensive.My present neighbor plays the piano all night long”,相对于男士的问话这明显是多余的信息。听者应意识到说话人在违反会话原则时是含有弦外之音,意即告诉听者她搬家的真正原因。因此,我们可以推论出她之所以搬家是因为不能忍受邻居的噪音,即A)She can't put up with the noise.
例2 W:Are you coming with me to the history museum,George?
M:I already have my hands full with this book report.
Q:What does the man mean?
A)He must hand in a report about the museum.
B)He has already visited the museum.
C)He has to read a history book.
D)He is too busy to go with her.
女士想邀请男士一起去历史博物馆参观,男士说自己的双手已经被读书报告占满了。这样说显然是不符合事实的,因此违反了会话原则的质量准则。不过,女士在意识到对方有意违反了合作原则时,就会透过话语的表面推出其真实意图,即男士很忙,不能跟她一起去。
例3W:Wouldn't you get bored with the same routine year after year teaching the same thing to children?
M:I don't think it would be as boring as working in an office.Teaching is most stimulating.
Q:What does the woman think about office work?
A)It's awfully dull.
B)It's very exhausting
C)It's really exciting
D)It's quite challenging
从语言的表层来看,女士的回答与男士的提问并不直接相关,这似乎不符合Grice的合作原则中的关联准则。但从女士对于加入的新信息office work的看法进行推理,可以看出这个新信息在话语间建立了一种隐性关联。它给了听者更丰富的信息,帮助听者推理出女士对于office work的看法是:boring,而女士的对于teaching的看法teaching is most stimulating也更明确了她对于office work的看法就是:A)It's awfully dull.
例4M:Have you met the new teacher?
W:I've been sick for three days.
Q:What does the woman mean?
A)The new teacher is sick.
B)She hasn't seen the new teacher.
C)There are three new teachers.
D)He didn't like the teacher.
女士用“我已病了3天”来回答男士“你见到新教员没有”的问题,看起来答非所问,显然违反了方式准则。不过,在这种情况下,会话双方的合作关系依然存在,只是由明变暗了。在这段对话中,当女士有意不遵守合作原则时,男士就有理由越过话语的字面意义去领会其弦外之音,从而推导出由于生病她没见着新教员,因此B)She hasn't seen the new teacher为正确答案。
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